Kathmandu

Here I discuss how philosophical and poetic texts of Sufism present alternative models of masculinities — associated with non-violence, structure of feeling, and self-sacrifice — that are radically different from the traditional masculine prototypes linked with aggression, instrumental rationality, and possession of goods. Such versions of non-violent alternative masculinities appear in a number of Asian religious, socio-political and poetic traditions, including Buddhism, Gandhism, Baul and Bhakti movements.

However, I focus only on the Sufi tradition, while suggesting that Sufism is only one among many other expressions of Asian masculinities that are radically different from the aggressive ‘modern’ masculinities around the globe valorising war, aggression and possession of commodities.

There is an intricate relationship between western versions of modernity and traditional prototypes of masculinities: both valorise possession of goods and profit in the commodity market as prime markers of success and good life. It is of course a different matter that such a high valuation of commodity possession has signalled a crisis of both modernity and masculinity. Excessive focus on possession — of territory, goods and natural resources — has not only led to countless wars and environmental crises, but has also inspired a sense of lack in many men who do not succeed within the possessive logic of the market. In this context, it is worthwhile to observe that Sufism has provided alternative ways to rethink both modernities and masculinities. This is because the ethical register of Sufism suggests a life of sacrifice rather than possession while simultaneously emphasising the virtue of ‘giving’ than receiving.

Contemporary global modernity is facing a number of crises, including environmental crisis, terrorism, increasing gap between the rich and the poor, and massive unemployment in certain regions of the world. What is working at the heart of such global problems is the dominant mode of masculinity linked to aggression, domination and violence. Sometimes such aggression and violence result in domestic violence at the level of the family, and, at other times, erupts at the community and national level in the form of wars, ethnic and class conflicts. The history of the world has shown that most of the wars, acts of terrorism and environmental disasters have been caused by men who are socialised from early childhood to develop aggressive masculinities.

This is not to say, however, that all men are aggressive or violent by nature. Most men feel that they have to act aggressive or make a show of strength in order to be seen as ‘real men’, an idea that is also reinforced by popular culture and media. Also, many men feel they need to suppress their emotions and sentiments and adopt the rational, calculative logic of the market in order to succeed as ‘real men’ in the modern world. In this context Sufism — just as Buddhism and Gandh(ism), for instance — provides alternative ways to rethink masculinities. By emphasising love instead of domination, structure of feeling rather than mere logical knowledge, a giving up of self rather than its narcissistic assertion, and finally a life of renunciation rather than possession of goods, Sufism is capable of providing alternative ways to think of contemporary masculinities.

Laeeq Babree, a sufi poet writes —

All around, there are mansions and palaces

And bazaars of duplicity and deception
created by jugglery of words

There is anguish, there is pain the eyes, and sadness and melancholy

In this dark night of depression


There are lingering voices of those who cannot react or respond !...

Spinning the cotton of life a young girl waits in vain

For compassion, for a world where people treat others as humans

And not as commodities that can be bought and sold in the market.

While it is true that men alone cannot be held responsible for all the woes of the contemporary world, the fact remains that men have always played a great role in building what Babree rightly calls the ‘bazaars of duplicity’ and ‘the jugglery of words’. It is also true that things need to change for those who remain at the lower ranks of social hierarchy, like the girl in Babree’s poem, who keeps on spinning the cotton of life and waiting in vain for a new world of compassion and love. Things need to change radically for women, for third genders, for disabled people and also for those who are suffering from a variety of social and political discriminations. To bring about these changes, however, there is an urgent need to change men, to change the way in which they relate to each other as well as to their own masculinities. This is because men continue to outnumber women and other genders by whopping numbers in the corridors of political and economic power. For this reason, men need to change in order to bring about a radical restructuring of society.

The value of Sufism, just like Buddhism, Baul and other alternative traditions of Asia, lies in the fact that it can provide ways to think about the direction and modalities of such change.

(Uprety is the Professor of English Literature at Tribhuvan University. He can be contacted at upretysanjeev@gmail.com)